Pages

This is default featured slide 1 title

Go to Blogger edit html and find these sentences.Now replace these sentences with your own descriptions.

This is default featured slide 2 title

Go to Blogger edit html and find these sentences.Now replace these sentences with your own descriptions.

This is default featured slide 3 title

Go to Blogger edit html and find these sentences.Now replace these sentences with your own descriptions.

This is default featured slide 4 title

Go to Blogger edit html and find these sentences.Now replace these sentences with your own descriptions.

This is default featured slide 5 title

Go to Blogger edit html and find these sentences.Now replace these sentences with your own descriptions.

Rabu, 07 Desember 2011

The Masterpiece Minbar

Written by Jonathan M. Bloom

Until relatively recent times, wooden furniture—in the sense of tables and chairs was little known in traditional Islamic societies. Throughout the warm and dry lands of North Africa, the Middle East, India and Central Asia, most people found it practical, as well as comfortable, to sit or kneel on the ground or on the floor. They used soft carpets to protect themselves from dirt; they leaned against cushions and firmly stuffed bolsters. Even rulers usually went along with this common practice and sat cross-legged on rugs and cushions that were sometimes laid out on slightly raised platforms.



An important reason for the absence of furniture in these parts of the world was the scarcity and high cost of wood. Timber was usually reserved for essential uses, such as building boats, supporting roofs, or making doors and shutters, and many old building timbers, for example, show signs of repeated reuse. After Muslim forces reconquered Acre from the Crusaders in 1291, Pope Nicholas IV barred Christians from selling timber to Muslims in an attempt to prevent the Muslims from building ships, and this "war of wood" continued for many decades.



Throughout the Muslim lands, craftsmen treated wood as a precious resource, and they learned to use small pieces of it to great artistic advantage, elaborating such techniques as mashrabiyya, in which lathe-turned pieces of wood are joined into grille-work, often used as a screen over a window; inlay, in which little pieces of colored woods are inserted into recesses carved in a larger piece of wood; and marquetry, in which a surface is entirely covered with little pieces of wood veneer laid side-by-side to form patterns. All these techniques are commonly found in small wooden objects, such as boxes, low tabouret tables and stands, in the Islamic world.



Perhaps because it was so precious, Muslim craftsmen used wood to make minbars, the one article of furniture required in every congregational mosque. The minbar, a stepped pulpit normally located to the right of the mihrab (the niche in the wall facing Makkah), is the place from which the imam preaches his sermon at Friday noon worship. Although some minbars in later centuries were built of stone or made of bricks covered with glazed tiles, from earliest times most were made of wood. And as the one ubiquitous type of wooden furniture in the Muslim world, minbars were the focus of woodworkers' greatest efforts, and were decorated with the finest materials and techniques available. Many countries and periods claim splendid examples, but perhaps the most beautiful to survive from the medieval period is the minbar formerly in the Kutubiyya Mosque of Marrakech, Morocco, which is now preserved in the Badi' Palace there.



The minbar—the word has come into English as mimbar—developed from the raised seat used by judges in pre-Islamic times, and it is the only common feature of the modern mosque that was used by the Prophet Muhammad himself, who addressed his followers from it. Other common features of mosques, such as the mihrab and minaret (the tower from which the call to prayer is issued) were introduced well after the Prophet's death in 632. His successors, the caliphs, made the Prophet's minbar a symbol of their authority, and eventually placed a minbar, modeled on the Prophet's, in the congregational mosque of every city, so that the caliph or his deputies could use it when addressing the community gathered for Friday worship.



At first the minbar was a simple wooden seat raised on three short steps, but in a few centuries, minbars began to be built as larger and more elaborate affairs. The steps became staircases, sometimes demarcated with an archway at the bottom; the archway was sometimes closed with doors. The seat at the top of the minbar was also elaborated and, particularly in Egypt, the Levant and Iran, was sometimes covered with a wooden canopy.



Rules for the use and placement of minbars varied from place to place. Some Muslims believed that no city could have more than one minbar, located in the city's single congregational mosque, or that minbars could only be brought out when they were needed for the Friday sermon. Others felt that it was acceptable to have more than one in a particular city or to leave them in place all week. In the Maghrib (North Africa and al-Andalus, or Muslim Spain), it became common practice to store the minbar in a closet built into the wall to the right of the mihrab. Because they were quite heavy, Maghribi minbars were built on wheels so that they could be rolled out of the closet, and wooden tracks were often laid on the carpets or mats of the mosque floor to make the task easier.



The oldest surviving minbar in North Africa is the one still in the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, which was assembled more than a thousand years ago, in the middle of the ninth century. The panels of Javanese teakwood were probably carved in Iraq and then shipped to North Africa, where they were assembled in a carved teakwood frame. Unusually, this minbar seems never to have had wheels.



The most famous minbar was that of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, commissioned by the 10th-century Umayyad caliph al-Hakam II on the occasion of his expansion of the mosque. According to the 12th-century geographer al-Idrisi, six craftsmen and their apprentices worked for seven years to finish it. The Moroccan historian Ibn 'Idhari, a native of Marrakech who lived in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, wrote that the Córdoba minbar was inlaid with red and yellow sandalwood, ebony, ivory and Indian wood, and that it cost the enormous sum of 35,705 gold dinars—at a time when a family of modest means required 20 to 30 dinars a year to live on! Although it was destroyed by Christian zealots in the 16th century, archeologists working in the mosque, which is now the Cathedral of Córdoba, discovered the remains of a closet to the right of the former mihrab where the minbar had presumably been stored.



The Kutubiyya minbar was probably built in the same workshop that made the famous Córdoba one, for a newly deciphered inscription on its left side states that it was ordered in Córdoba on the first day of Muharram 532 AH (September 19, 1137) for the congregational mosque in Marrakech. Thus it was most probably ordered by the ruling Almoravid sultan, 'Ali ibn Yusuf, son and successor of the Berber amir Yusuf ibn Tashufin, whose long, 36-year reign is generally regarded as one of the most brilliant in the history of the Muslim West. Although Marrakech remained the capital of the Almoravid kingdom, which included most of present-day Morocco and southern Spain, Córdoba returned in those years to the central intellectual, artistic and social position it had held more than a century earlier under the Umayyads, when the city had been a center of literature and the arts.



The Kutubiyya minbar, which stands nearly 4 meters high, 3½ meters deep and nearly 1 meter wide (13 by 11 by 3 ft), was prefabricated in pieces, so that it could be transported from Spain to Morocco. It must have been assembled and installed in the mosque of Marrakech by 1147, since it was in that year that the Almoravids lost the city to their Almohad rivals. The Almohads, also a Berber reformist group, had taken advantage of the Almoravids' preoccupation with Iberian affairs to extend their power from the High Atlas mountains south of Marrakech.



After taking the city, the Almohad ruler destroyed the Almoravid mosque on the pretext of correcting its faulty orientation, which was said not to point exactly towards Makkah; however, he transferred its beautiful minbar as a trophy to the new mosque he built on the ruins of the Almoravid palace he had also destroyed. Apart from the minbar, all that remained of the earlier mosque was the charming ablution pavilion that once stood in its court.



An anonymous medieval author reports that a skilled engineer from Malaga designed a magnificent screened wooden enclosure, or maqsura, for this new Almohad mosque. The maqsura, he wrote, was housed in slots in the floor of the mosque; when the sultan entered the mosque, a counterbalance mechanism, presumably activated by his weight, raised the screen from where it rested to define a private enclosure for the ruler and his courtiers. When the sultan left, the maqsura sank back into the floor, where it remained for the rest of the week. In fact, archeologists working at the site of this mosque in the late 1940's confirmed the basic elements of this story by finding the trenches that would have held the maqsura. They also found the remains of another wondrous mechanism, described in the same text, that automatically opened the door of the closet that housed the minbar when the preacher stood up to give the Friday sermon, and silently rolled the minbar out. The Muslims of Spain delighted in elaborate mechanical devices and automata such as those.



At some time before 1162, the Almohad mosque was also found to be incorrectly oriented toward Makkah, so yet another mosque was built at a slightly different angle, adjacent to the first one. The magnificent minbar was transferred yet again to the new mosque, and it was this that came to be known as the Kutubiyya ("Booksellers'") Mosque, because of the dozens of bookshops that once surrounded it.



When the minbar first came to scholarly attention in the 1920's, French scholars thought it had been made for the Kutubiyya Mosque itself. Over the years, the minbar was repeatedly cited as one of the great examples of medieval Islamic art, but it was rarely seen by non-Muslims. It remained in the mosque until the 1960's, when it was transferred to a local museum. Then, in preparation for an international exhibition of the arts of Islamic Spain held in 1992 at the Alhambra in Granada and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the minbar was photographed extensively, but was ultimately deemed too fragile to travel.



In 1996 a US-Moroccan team agreed to undertake scientific conservation—though not restoration—of the minbar's structure and decoration so that its beauties could be made accessible to a wider audience. Under the aegis of Abdelaziz Touri, director of cultural patrimony for Morocco, a series of drawings was produced that recorded and analyzed the minbar's every detail. At the same time, the team prepared designs for restoring a suitable space in the largely ruined Badi' Palace, where the minbar would become the centerpiece of a new museum of Islamic art.



Conservators from the United States spent seven months in Marrakech studying the minbar, strengthening its structure, regluing fallen panels and removing several centuries of grime from its decoration. Stefano Carboni, assistant curator of Islamic art at the Metropolitan Museum, researched the minbar's history along with the author of this article. The minbar is now on public display in a new gallery at the refurbished Badi' Palace.



Originally, every visible surface of the Kutubiyya minbar was covered in a web of decoration comprised of either carved panels or marquetry. Some of the carved panels measure several centimeters across, but many of the pieces of which the marquetry is composed are smaller than a grain of rice. El Mostafa Hbibi, inspector of historic monuments for Marrakech, estimates that the minbar was originally composed of more than 1.3 million pieces of wood. If the Córdoba minbar took seven years to complete, as the texts tell us, a team of craftsmen and apprentices must have worked for no less time to build and decorate the Kutubiyya one.



The conservators determined that, in addition to the standard range of saws, drills, chisels and gouges that medieval craftsmen used, the builders of the Kutubiyya minbar must also have used a fretsaw—a thin, flexible toothed blade held under tension in a deeply bow-shaped or U-shaped frame. Until then, scholars had believed that this tool had been invented in 16th-century Italy, but it was clear that the fine, undulating decoration on the risers of the minbar's steps could only have been cut with such a tool, four centuries earlier than it was previously thought to exist.



On the other hand, the conservators were unable to explain exactly how medieval artisans had created other aspects of the decoration, such as the tiny, one-centimeter square tiles, inlaid with still smaller cubes of wood, that make up the background of many panels. Each of the triangular sides of the Kutubiyya minbar is decorated with a geometric pattern of intersecting bands, called strap work, which outline a design of irregular polygons of four different shapes: two sizes of eight-pointed star, both known as khatam, or "seal [of Solomon]"; an elongated hexagon with triangular projections on the long sides, known as mitraqa, or "hammer"; and an irregular Y-shaped, six-pointed star, known as difda'a—and colloquially in Morocco as jarana, or "frog." While the bands are worked in marquetry of colored wood and bone, each of these four types of polygon is made of a particular precious wood: The stars are carved of African blackwood (Dalbergia spp., an exceptionally hard and fine-grained wood), the hexagons of boxwood (Buxus sempervirens) and the "frogs" of jujube (Zizyphus spp.). The recent cleaning has revealed the distinct colors of these different woods, which the centuries had darkened into an undifferentiated brown. The vibrant colors of the patterns reveal the close relationship between them and the traditional art of tile mosaic, known in Morocco as zillij, which in Maghribi architecture is used to decorate walls. Indeed, a band of mid-12th-century zillij girdles the top of the minaret of the Kutubiyya Mosque itself, one of the earliest surviving examples of the technique. Like the minbar's, its pattern too is based on overlapping octagons.



Zillij, intricately patterned and subtly colored, relies for its effect on the repetition of designs and motifs. In contrast, the decoration of the Kutubiyya minbar is never quite repetitive. Among the carved panels, no two are exactly alike, and each waits for the viewer's eye to explore it as a miniature but complete work of art in itself. Some panels are decorated with shallow symmetrical designs of leaves and stems known as vegetal arabesques, while others show more deeply carved naturalistic foliage, frozen in time as if a breath of wind had just rippled across it. A few panels display manmade objects, such as two columns supporting a scalloped arch and a hanging lamp, which presumably represents a mihrab. The carving on the blackwood panels is so fine, and the wood so finegrained, that they were once thought to have been carved from colored ivory; all are clearly the work of immensely experienced and talented craftsmen.



The two sizes of stars defined by the strapwork design on the flanks of the minbar generate a subtle modulation of the overall pattern that prevents it from becoming monotonous. While all the vertical and horizontal bands are exactly in line, the diagonals slightly expand and contract, thereby energizing the whole. The overall design is precisely coordinated to match the minbar's stepped profile: Each repetition of the pattern corresponds to one of the steps. Each side panel is bordered by stepped bands containing a long Arabic inscription. The individual letters, also carved from blackwood and outlined with thin strips of white bone, are set against a background of tiny wooden tiles, each one inlaid with minuscule blocks of wood that form yet another pattern.



This inscription was long recognized to contain quotations from the Qur'an, and the recent cleaning revealed them to be passages from Surah 2 ("The Cow") and Surah 7 ("The Heights") that refer to the throne of God, an appropriate metaphor for a minbar. The passage from Surah 2 even includes the sentence, "He brings them forth from the shadows into the light," a selection that could be a reference to the minbar's removal from its closet each week. It was a great surprise, however, when the cleaning also revealed that the inscription on the left side ended with a historical text and date, which turned out to be 15 years later than scholars had previously believed.



Each riser of the staircase is decorated with an arcade of linked horseshoe arches enclosing vegetal motifs worked in marquetry, and arched frames on either side of the stairway display beautiful geometric and arabesque decoration on the exterior and exquisite carved inscriptions, also texts from the Qur'an, on the interior.



Perhaps the finest decoration was reserved for the minbar's backrest, which originally had a complex design worked in delicate marquetry and pierced carving. It represented intersecting cusped arches reminiscent of those in the maqsura around the mihrab in Córdoba's congregational mosque. Although preachers traditionally leave the seat at the top of the minbar vacant, in deference to the Prophet Muhammad, this area of the Kutubiyya minbar has paradoxically suffered the most loss of its decoration, and its glories can only be imagined on the basis of the scant remains and by comparison with similar works.



Conservators discovered traces of gold leaf on certain areas of the backrest and hypothesized that these areas would have been covered with panels whose backgrounds had been pierced, or carved entirely away, very much like those on the slightly later Almohad minbar in the Kasba Mosque of Marrakech. The effect would have been extraordinary, as the reflected light glittered in the dark depths of the carving. An elegantly simple inscription encircles the top of the backrest; although the date has been lost, the text commemorates the completion of the work, probably sometime in the early 1140's. A text carved on the impost blocks supporting the arches invokes God's blessing on the ruler, much as the imam would have invoked them in the sermons he gave from the minbar.



Unlike many great examples of medieval Islamic art, which—as far as we know—passed unnoticed by contemporary witnesses, the Kutubiyya minbar was already considered to be a great work of art in medieval times. Ibn Marzuq, the 14th-century North African preacher, statesman and hadith scholar, or traditionist, wrote that "...all craftsmen... agree that the minbar of the Mosque of Córdoba and the minbar of the Kutubiyya Mosque in Marrakech are the most remarkable in craftsmanship, because it is not customary for Easterners to have fine woodwork in their buildings."



Ibn Marzuq must surely have known more about the arts of the "East" than that statement implies, for during his extensive travels he had preached from minbars in many of the most important mosques in Syria and Egypt. He must have known that their woodwork was finely crafted, although different in style and technique from what he knew at home in the Maghrib.



For example, Ibn Marzuq is known to have preached at the mosque of Hebron, and the minbar there is one of the finest examples of its type to survive. In contrast to the design of the Kutubiyya minbar, woodworkers in the central Islamic lands from Egypt to Iran favored an approach in which the sides and other flat surfaces were, decorated with large-scale strapwork patterns that often radiated from central stars. These radiating bands create polygons of varied shapes, and the aesthetic purpose is to amaze the viewer, who will wonder how the designer has made seemingly disparate and irreconcilable elements combine into a rational and logical pattern.



This "Eastern" kind of woodwork also differed in technique from that of the Maghrib. In contrast to the decoration glued on the wooden carcass of the Kutubiyya minbar, the decoration on the Hebron minbar was actually constructed from grooved pieces of wood fitted together with mortise-and-tenon joints. Each of the strapwork elements is carved with parallel grooves, while each of the polygonal pieces is carved with interlaced arabesque designs. The balustrade is made up of mashrabiyya spoolwork, one of the earliest surviving examples of this technique. Furthermore, in contrast to the intricate and small-scale patterns common in the West, those used on minbars from the central Islamic lands, particularly in Hebron and Jerusalem, are much larger in scale, so that only a fraction of the design, or at most a few repeats, is visible at any one time. These differences of technique, design, and taste begin to explain why Ibn Marzuq could write that "it was not customary for Easterners to have fine woodwork in their buildings."



The extraordinary state of preservation of the Kutubiyya minbar and its recent conservation provide us with one of the finest and most complete examples of medieval Islamic art from the Muslim West. While the Almoravids were considered rough and austere reformists when they first arrived in al-Andalus, they developed a high culture and refinement, and there can be no question that 'Ali ibn Yusuf was an enlightened patron of the arts. The subtle contrasts between the techniques of carving and marquetry, the textures of smooth and patterned surfaces, the subjects of geometric and vegetal ornament, and the colors of monochrome wood and vibrantly colored marquetry are the basic organizing principles of the minbar's design. Viewed from a distance, the colorful tile-like patterns seem to take precedence, but from close up the viewer is beckoned to explore the intricacies of individual elements.



At the same time, as in much Islamic art, there is considerable ambiguity as to what part of the design is meant to be "the subject" and what is meant to be "the background." For example, are the carved panels meant to be seen as the background between the strapwork bands, or are the panels the subjects, and the bands merely separators? Within a fairly narrow repertory of forms and techniques, which in the hands of lesser masters might have approached monotony, all of these elements are played off against one another in a series of subtle variations.


Source: http://english.islammessage.com

The rights of women in Islam

Islam honours women greatly. It honours women as mothers who must be respected, obeyed and treated with kindness. Pleasing one's mother is regarded as part of pleasing Allaah. Islam tells us that Paradise lies at the mother’s feet, i.e. that the best way to reach Paradise is through one's mother. And Islam forbids disobeying one’s mother or making her angry, even by saying a mild word of disrespect. The mother’s rights are greater than those of the father, and the duty to take care of her grows greater as the mother grows older and weaker. All of that is mentioned in many texts of the Qur'aan and Sunnah.

For example, Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“And We have enjoined on man to be dutiful and kind to his parents”

[al-Ahqaaf 46:15]

“And your Lord has decreed that you worship none but Him. And that you be dutiful to your parents. If one of them or both of them attain old age in your life, say not to them a word of disrespect, nor shout at them but address them in terms of honour.

24. And lower unto them the wing of submission and humility through mercy, and say: ‘My Lord! Bestow on them Your Mercy as they did bring me up when I was young’”

[al-Isra’ 17:23, 24]

Ibn Maajah (2781) narrated that Mu’aawiyah ibn Jaahimiah al-Sulami (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: I came to the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and said: O Messenger of Allaah, I want to go for jihad with you, seeking thereby the Face of Allaah and the Hereafter. He said, “Woe to you! Is your mother still alive?” I said, Yes. He said, “Go back and honour her.” Then I approached him from the other side and said: O Messenger of Allaah, I want to go for jihad with you, seeking thereby the Face of Allaah and the Hereafter. He said, “Woe to you! Is your mother still alive?” I said, Yes. He said, “Go back and honour her.” Then I approached him from in front and said, O Messenger of Allaah, I want to go for jihad with you, seeking thereby the Face of Allaah and the Hereafter. He said, “Woe to you! Is your mother still alive?” I said, Yes. He said, “Go back and honour her (lit. stay by her feet), for there is Paradise.”

Classed as saheeh by al-Albaani in Saheeh Sunan Ibn Maajah. It was also narrated by al-Nasaa’i with the words: “Stay with her for Paradise is beneath her feet.”

Al-Bukhaari (5971) and Muslim (2548) narrated that Abu Hurayrah (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: A man came to the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and said: “O Messenger of Allaah, who is most deserving of my good company?” He said: “Your mother.” He said: “Then who?” He said: “Your mother.” He said: “Then who?” He said: “Your mother.” He said: “Then who?” He said: “Then your father.”

And there are other texts which we do not have room to mention here.

One of the rights which Islam gives to the mother is that her son should spend on her if she needs that support, so long as he is able and can afford it. Hence for many centuries it was unheard of among the people of Islam for a mother to be left in an old-people’s home or for a son to kick her out of the house, or for her sons to refuse to spend on her, or for her to need to work in order to eat and drink if her sons were present.

Islam also honours women as wives. Islam urges the husband to treat his wife in a good and kind manner, and says that the wife has rights over the husband like his rights over her, except that he has a degree over her, because of his responsibility of spending and taking care of the family’s affairs. Islam states that the best of the Muslim men is the one who treats his wife in the best manner, and the man is forbidden to take his wife’s money without her consent.

Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“and live with them honourably”

[al-Nisa’ 4:19]

“And they (women) have rights (over their husbands as regards living expenses) similar (to those of their husbands) over them (as regards obedience and respect) to what is reasonable, but men have a degree (of responsibility) over them. And Allaah is All-Mighty, All-Wise”

[al-Baqarah 2:228]

And the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “I urge you to treat women well.”
Narrated by al-Bukhaari, 331; Muslim, 1468.

And the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “The best of you is the one who is best to his wife, and I am the best of you to my wives.”
Narrated by al-Tirmidhi, 3895; Ibn Maajah, 1977; classed as saheeh by al-Albaani in Saheeh al-Tirmidhi.

And Islam honours women as daughters, and encourages us to raise them well and educate them. Islam states that raising daughters will bring a great reward.

For example, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Whoever takes care of two girls until they reach adulthood, he and I will come like this on the Day of Resurrection,” and he held his fingers together.
Narrated by Muslim, 2631.

Ibn Maajah (3669) narrated that ‘Uqbah ibn ‘Aamir (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: I heard the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) say: “Whoever has three daughters and is patient towards them, and feeds them, gives them to drink and clothes them from his riches, they will be a shield for him from the Fire on the Day of Resurrection.”
Classed as saheeh by al-Albaani in Saheeh Ibn Maajah.

Islam honours woman as sisters and as aunts. Islam enjoins upholding the ties of kinship and forbids severing those ties in many texts. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “O people! Spread (the greeting of) salaam, offer food (to the needy), uphold the ties of kinship, and pray at night when people are sleeping, and you will enter Paradise in peace.”
Narrated by Ibn Maajah, 3251; classed as saheeh by al-Albaani in Saheeh Ibn Maajah.

Al-Bukhaari (5988) narrated that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Allaah, may He be exalted, said to the ties of kinship: ‘Whoever upholds you, I will support him, and whoever breaks you, I will cut him off.’”

All of these qualities may co-exist in a single woman: she may be a wife, a daughter, a mother, a sister, an aunt, so she may be honoured in all these ways.

To conclude: Islam raised the status of women, and made them equal with men in most rulings. So women, like men, are commanded to believe in Allaah and to worship Him. And women are made equal to men in terms of reward in the Hereafter. Women have the right to express themselves, to give sincere advice, to enjoin what is good and forbid what is evil, and to call people to Allaah. Women have the right to own property, to buy and sell, to inherit, to give charity and to give gifts. It is not permissible for anyone to take a woman’s wealth without her consent. Women have the right to a decent life, without facing aggression or being wronged. Women have the right to be educated; in fact it is obligatory to teach them what they need to know about their religion.

Anyone who compares the rights of women in Islam with their situation during the Jaahiliyyah or in other civilizations will understand that what we are saying is true. In fact we are certain that women are given the greatest honour in Islam.

There is no need for us to mention the situation of women in Greek, Persian or Jewish society, but even Christian societies had a bad attitude towards women. The theologians even gathered at the Council of Macon to discuss whether woman was merely a body or a body with a soul. They thought it most likely that women did not have a soul that could be saved, and they made an exception only in the case of Mary (Maryam – peace be upon her).

The French held a conference in 586 CE to discuss whether women had souls or not, and if they had souls, were these souls animal or human? In the end, they decided that they were human! But they were created to serve men only.

During the time of Henry VIII, the English Parliament issued a decree forbidding women to read the New Testament because they were regarded as impure.

Until 1805, English law allowed a man to sell his wife, and set a wife’s price at six pennies.

In the modern age, women were kicked out of the house at the age of eighteen so that they could start working to earn a bite to eat. If a woman wanted to stay in the house, she had to pay her parents rent for her room and pay for her food and laundry.

See ‘Awdat al-Hijaab, 2/47-56.

How can this compare to Islam which enjoins honouring and kind treatment of women, and spending on them?

Secondly:

With regard to the changes in these rights throughout the ages, the basic principles have not changed, but with regard to the application of these principles, there can be no doubt that during the golden age of Islam, the Muslims applied the sharee’ah of their Lord more, and the rulings of this sharee’ah include honouring one’s mother and treating one’s wife, daughter, sister and women in general in a kind manner. The weaker religious commitment grew, the more these rights were neglected, but until the Day of Resurrection there will continue to be a group who adheres to their religion and applies the sharee’ah of their Lord. These are the people who honour women the most and grant them their rights.

Despite the weakness of religious commitment among many Muslims nowadays, women still enjoy a high status, whether as daughters, wives or sisters, whilst we acknowledge that there are shortcomings, wrongdoing and neglect of women’s rights among some people, but each one will be answerable for himself.


Source: http://www.turntoislam.com

Selasa, 29 November 2011

Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem

The most famous Islamic site in Jerusalem is the Dome of the Rock (Qubbat as-Sakhrah). An impressive and beautiful edifice, the Dome of the Rock can be seen from all over Jerusalem. It is the crowning glory of the Haram es-Sharif ("Noble Sanctuary"), or Temple Mount.
The Dome of the Rock is not a mosque, but a Muslim shrine. Like the Ka'ba in Mecca, it is built over a sacred stone. This stone is believed to be the place from which the Prophet Muhammad ascended into heaven during his Night Journey to heaven.
The Dome of the Rock is the oldest Islamic monument that stands today and certainly one of the most beautiful. It also boasts the oldest surviving mihrab (niche indicating the direction of Mecca) in the world.

History

The sacred rock over which the Dome of the Rock is built was considered holy before the arrival of Islam. Jews believed, and still believe, the rock to be the very place where Abraham prepared to sacrifice Isaac (an event which Muslims place in Mecca). In addition, the Dome of the Rock (or the adjacent Dome of the Chain) is believed by many to stand directly over the site of the Holy of Holies of both Solomon's Temple and Herod's Temple.
The Dome of the Rock was built by the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik from 688 to 691 AD. It was not intended to be a mosque, but a shrine for pilgrims. According to tradition, the Dome of the Rock was built to commemorate Muhammad's ascension into heaven after his night journey to Jerusalem (Qur'an 17). But there seems to have been more to it than this, since the Dome of the Ascension was later built nearby.
Actually, according to the Oxford Archaeological Guide to the Holy Land, "Abd al-Malik's purpose was more complex and subtle." He wished to erect a beautiful Muslim building that could compete with the majestic churches of Christendom and would be a symbolic statement to both Jews and Christians of the superiority of the new faith of Islam. "His building spoke to Jews by its location, to Christians by its interior decoration." [1]
In the 10th century, the Jerusalem visitor Mukaddasi wrote of the magnificent structure:
At dawn, when the light of the sun first strikes the dome and the drum catches the rays, then is this edifice a marvellous sight to behold, and one such than in all of Islam I have not seen the equal; neither have I heard tell of anything built in pagan times that could rival in grace this Dome of the Rock. [2]
By the 11th century, several legends had developed concerning the Dome of the Rock and its sacred stone, including the following:
They say that on the night of his Ascension into Heaven the Prophet, peace and blessing be upon him, prayed first at the Dome of the Rock, laying his hand upon the Rock. As he went out, the Rock, to do him honor, rose up, but he laid his hand on it to keep it in its place and firmly fixed it there. But by reason of this rising up, it is even to this present day partly detached from the ground beneath. [3]
In the Middle Ages, Christians and Muslims both believed the dome to be the biblical Temple of Solomon. The Knights Templar made their headquarters there during the Crusades and later patterned their churches after its design. [4]
The exterior mosaics that once adorned the Dome of the Rock suffered from exposure to Jerusalem winters. They were repaired in the Mamluk period, and then completely replaced with tiles by Sulieman the Magnificent in 1545. At the same time, he created the parapet wall with its intricate inscription by filling up the thirteen small arches that originally topped each facade. The windows of the Dome of the Rock date from this period as well. The tiling was completely replaced in the last major restoration in 1956-62.

What to See

The extraordinary visual impact of the Dome of the Rock is in part due to the mathematical rhythm of its proportions. All the critical dimensions are related to the center circle that surrounds the sacred stone. For example, each outer wall is 67 feet long, which is exactly the dome's diameter and exactly its height from the base of the drum.
The same principles were used in Byzantine churches of Italy, Syria, and Palestine, but none compare to the integration of plan and elevation seen in the Dome of the Rock.
The great golden dome that crowns the Dome of the Rock was originally made of gold, but was replaced with copper and then aluminum. The aluminum is now covered with gold leaf, a donation from the late King Hussein of Jordan. [6]
The dome is topped by a full moon decoration which evokes the familiar crescent moon symbol of Islam. It is aligned so that if you could look through it, you would be looking straight towards Mecca.
The beautiful multicolored Turkish tiles that adorn the shrine's exterior are faithful copies of the Persian tiles that Suleiman the Magnificent added in 1545 to replace the damaged originals. The lower half of the exterior is white marble.
The Arabic inscription around the octagonal part of the Dome of the Rock are verses from the Qur'an. The inscription dates from the renovation under Suleiman. The tiled area just below the golden dome is the drum. Its glazed tiles were made in Turkey, and its Arabic inscription tells of the Night Journey of Muhammad as described in the Qur'an (surah 17).
Inside the shrine, an arched wall called the octagonal arcade or inner octagon follows the exterior shape. An open space between this and the central circle forms the inner ambulatory around the Rock, carpeted in lush red. The area between the inner octagon and outer octogan (exterior wall) forms a smaller, outer ambulatory, carpeted in green. The two ambulatories recall the ritual circular movement of pilgrims around the Ka'ba in Mecca.
The cupola, the interior of the great golden dome, features elaborate floral decorations in red and gold, as well as various inscriptions. The main inscription in the cupola commemorates Saladin, who sponsored extenstive restoration work on the building.
The mosaics of the interior feature both realistic and stylized representations of vegetation and related themes (Muslim law forbids the representation of living beings in art). The mosaics evoke an exotic garden, perhaps the gardens of Paradise. Rich jewelry is also depicted in abundance, including breastplates, necklaces, and a Persian crown with features gathered at the base. The caliph Omar had conquered Persia in 637, and the mosaics symbolize the Persian crowns he sent to hang in Mecca.
The founding inscription is a monumental 240-meter long line of Kufic script running along the top of both sides of the octagonal arcade inside the Dome of the Rock. On the outer side of the arcade, the inscription quotes Quranic verses glorifying God.
On the eastern side, an inscription gives credit for the building's construction to the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun in the year 72 AH (691 AD). However, al-Mamun reigned from 813-33 AD, so the inscription clearly represents an Abbasid effort to claim credit for the achievement of the previous dynasty.
Much of the inscription on the inner side of the octagonal arcade exhorts Christians to depart from error of the Trinity and recognize the truth of Islam:
O People of the Book! Do not exaggerate in your religion nor utter aught concerning God save the truth. The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, was only a Messenger of God, and His Word which He conveyed unto Mary, and a spirit from Him. So believe in God and His messengers, and say not 'Three' - Cease! (it is) better for you! - God is only One God. Far be it removed from His transcendent majesty that He should have a son. ... Whoso disbelieveth the revelations of God (will find that) lo! God is swift at reckoning! [5]
The columns supporting the inner octagon and the center circle are of different sizes; they were recycled from previous structures. The crosses on some show them to have been taken from churches. The carved ceilings on either side of the inner octagon were not part of the original design; they first appeared in the 14th century and have been restored since then. The Mamluk star is the dominant motif.
The small, flat mihrab (niche showing the direction of Mecca) belongs to the original building, and is the oldest mihrab preserved in the Islamic world. The wooden screen around the sacred rock was donated by the Ayyubid sultan al-Aziz in 1198. The Crusaders protected the rock from relic-snatching pilgrims by erecting a wrought-iron screen between the columns of the circle; it remained in place until 1960 and is now on display in the Islamic Museum.
The sacred rock that is the central focus of the shrine is a large, ancient rock that may have once stood in the center of Solomon's Temple. For Jews, it is the rock on which Abraham prepared to sacrifice Isaac. For Muslims, it is the rock from which Muhammad's winged horse leapt into the sky, accompanied by the Archangel Gabriel, on the "Night Journey" into heaven (Qur'an 17). The rock is said to bear the horse's imprint. Muslim tradition holds that an angel will come to the rock to sound the trumpet call of the Last Judgment at the end of the world. [7]
The reliquary next to the rock dates from the Ottoman period and contains a hair of Muhammad's beard.
The cavity beneath the rock, accessible by a staircase near the south entrance, is known as Bir el-Arwah, the "Well of Souls." It is said that here the voices of the dead mingle with the falling waters of the lower rivers of paradise as they drop into eternity.
Another legend says that the dead meet here twice a month to pray. In earlier days, those who prayed here after having walked around the rock were given a certificate entitling them admission to paradise; it was to be buried with them.

Quick Facts

Site Information
Names: Dome of the Rock; Qubbat as-Sakhrah
Location:Jerusalem, Israel
Faith:Islam
Categories: Shrines; Mosques
Date:688-91
Features:Oldest; Mosaics
Status:active
Photo gallery:Dome of the Rock Photo Gallery
Visitor Information
Address:Temple Mount, Jerusalem
Coordinates: 31.778097° N, 35.235139° E   (view on Google Maps)
Lodging:View hotels near this location
Opening hours:Currently open only to Muslims, 8:30am to 3pm daily. Closed to tourist visits during midday prayers.
Cost:Combined admission ticket of NIS 38 for Al-Aqsa Mosque, Dome of the Rock, and Islamic Museum.

Calligraphy in Islamic Art

Calligraphy is the most highly regarded and most fundamental element of Islamic art. It is significant that the Qur’an, the book of God's revelations to the Prophet Muhammad, was transmitted in Arabic, and that inherent within the Arabic script is the potential for developing a variety of ornamental forms. The employment of calligraphy as ornament had a definite aesthetic appeal but often also included an underlying talismanic component. While most works of art had legible inscriptions, not all Muslims would have been able to read them. One should always keep in mind, however, that calligraphy is principally a means to transmit a text, albeit in a decorative form.

Objects from different periods and regions vary in the use of calligraphy in their overall design, demonstrating the creative possibilities of calligraphy as ornament. In some cases, calligraphy is the dominant element in the decoration. In these examples, the artist exploits the inherent possibilities of the Arabic script to create writing as ornament. An entire word can give the impression of random brushstrokes, or a single letter can develop into a decorative knot. In other cases, highly esteemed calligraphic works on paper are themselves ornamented and enhanced by their decorative frames or backgrounds. Calligraphy can also become part of an overall ornamental program, clearly separated from the rest of the decoration. In some examples, calligraphy can be combined with vegetal scrolls on the same surface though often on different levels, creating an interplay of decorative elements.

Department of Islamic Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Minggu, 27 November 2011

Hijab vs Liberty

Recently I have been reading various articles about governments in Europe banning the niqab (type of head covering worn by some women which only leaves the eyes visible) or burqa (type of head covering worn by some women which covers the entire body including the eyes with a netted or mesh material).  First Belgium made it illegal for women to cover their faces in public, now France is in the process of passing a law to do the same. Philip Hollobone, Conservative MP for Kettering has suggested that he would like to see the same thing happen in the UK, saying the face covering veil is ‘offensive’ he also adds that he finds it difficult to communicate with women wearing a full veil and if women wearing a niqab/burqa want to speak to him they will have to lift their veil or communicate with him in other ways such as sending him a letter. The immigration minister, Damian Green has told the Sunday Telegraph that banning the niqab in this country will be very un-British and that the government should not start trying to dictate what people can and cannot wear. So will the ban on the niqab/burqa In the UK go ahead or not?  Only time will tell.
Throughout the world we see Muslims being attacked in all directions, not just physically in Iraq, Afghanistan or Palestine to name but a few, or politically as seen in Iran, but in other more subtle ways such as through the media demonizing Islam and its followers, making everyday life of a practicing Muslim seem extreme and ancient. This debate on the banning of the veil is another example of the attack on Muslims.
In this article I want to look at what it means to be liberated, the reasons why women wear not only the niqab and burqa but hijab in general and why some people want the veil to be banned. Of course some want it banned because of their hate for Islam and Muslims examples of these people are far right activists such as the BNP, EDL and those couch potatoes who failed at everything in life, have no job, live off benefits and are brainwashed by everything they see on the TV, or maybe its people who feel threatened by women who do not conform to the pressures of fashion and the media these people are those who use women to advertise their products or make a ridiculous amount of money by using women to satisfy their filthy desires. Maybe its women who do not want to admit that they themselves are victims of a society which degrades them and portrays them as objects of lust. But mostly its people who do not understand Islam, what it teaches and why it’s the most perfect way of life.
A question I would like to ask is why is it always men (Nicolas Sarkozy, Jack Straw, Philip Hollobone ) who have a problem with a woman choosing to cover herself? Would they feel the same way about a woman who came to see them wearing a bikini? Would they tell her to cover up before they came to see them? Can these men not value the intelligence of a woman and listen to what she has to say rather than what she looks like?
Some say Islam is a religion which oppresses women; I wonder if that is why while the prophet (pbuh) was delivering his last sermon reminding the people that the best men are those who are kind to their wives ,the Catholic Church was debating whether women should be considered as human or animal?
There are pressures on women to look a certain way in the western society; slim, yet curvy, nice hair, smooth legs, you only have to sit through a few adverts on TV to know what women are ‘supposed’ to look like. In today’s world they try to tell us that women are more liberated than ever, equal rights and freedom for all. But is this really true?  Are women really liberated or has our idea of liberty been severely distorted?
Liberated is a word that shouldn’t be used for all these women who are raped and subjugated, who are forced to be thin, prostitutes who feel the only way for them to survive is to sell themselves to men. Liberated are not the women who are stripped naked and posted on billboards in front a car to make sales. Liberated are not women who have to wear tight, short skirts, low cut shirts and high stiletto heels with tones of make up just to fit in to the work place. Liberated are not women who are taught that to be successful in life you have to look good, have a god job and lots of money, women who are taught that something which is natural (being married whilst still young and having children) makes them unsuccessful and oppressed or signs of aging, something which again is natural. Liberated are not the thousands of women and young girls who spend millions every year to buy cosmetics and have cosmetic surgery to look ‘perfect’ or ‘better’. Liberated are not these celebrities who are either too fat or too thin. Liberated are not women who feel as though they have to have a man to tell them they look good for them to feel good, they are not the women who feel insecure about the way they look or feel as though they need make up and revealing clothes to boost their self esteem. Liberated are not the women who are always in search of something, man or material goods, to make them happy.
Liberated are women who choose to cover themselves to obey God not man, they are women who respect themselves and do not let fashion designers strip their dignity. Liberated are those women whose only desire is to enter paradise, women who know that this life is a test and will come to an end. Women who are proud to represent their faith everyday of their lives, who give da’wah the moment they walk out of the house without even needing to speak. Liberated are the pearls of Islam that keep their beauty hidden from the world because they want to share it with only one man who is committed, who will love them and take care of them all their life, the man they love for the sake of Allah. Liberated are the women who know that their children are a blessing and are thankful everyday to Allah for giving them all they have. Liberated are the women who rely on no man but Allah alone to get them through each day. Liberated are the women who expect nothing less than respect and kindness from men, they are the women who treat each other as sisters and not as competition. Liberated are the women who dress modestly like the respected and honorable women before them; Maryam (Mary mother of Jesus pbuh), Khadijah RA, the other wives, daughters and companions of the prophet.

Liberated are the women of Islam.

Jumat, 25 November 2011

The Quran

The Quran (can also be spelled as Qur'an, Koran, or Coran) is the holy scripture of Muslims. The Quran states that the name of God's religion is Islam and it refers to its followers as Muslims.

The Quran (Koran) started to be revealed by God to Prophet Mohammad through arch-angel Gabriel, when he was 40 years old, around year 610 AD. It was revealed gradually, few verses at a time, over a period of about 23 years. The Quran is a very unique book that differs from the Bible in many ways. Unlike the Bible which supposedly contains the sayings of Jesus and other writings which Christians believe were inspired by God, the Quran is the "literal" word of God. We mean that the words in the Quran are the exact words of God. Therefore, the author of the Quran is God himself. Furthermore, also unlike the Bible, the Quran does not contain the sayings of Prophet Mohammad, nor does it contain an account of Prophet Mohammad's life.

God in the Quran (Koran) promises clearly to protect the Quran from corruption. Indeed, God has protected the Quran. The Quran has remained the same. All the verses that were revealed to prophet Mohammad by angel Gabriel are included in the Quran that is available today.

The Quran states that the Quran, in by itself, is the most important miracle that Prophet Mohammad has brought to humanity. Since Prophet Mohammad was intended to be the last prophet and the Quran was the last message, God decided to give people a unique miracle that can be examined and experienced by not only people who lived at the time of the prophet, but for the hundreds of years to come. So, it was natural for God to choose Quran to be such a miracle.

That is why the Arabic Quran (Koran) is a unique miracle. The only book in the world authored by God himself, word by word, and that is still available today in its original form. People throughout the Ages have wondered whether they can see God or something that can be attributed directly to God. The Quran is the answer. It is available today for all humans to experience how God expresses himself in words. The Quran is a book of knowledge with a uniquely captivating style, in which every verse is a sign from God. Each word used in the Arabic Quran was uniquely chosen by God for a purpose. You can not add or subtract a word to/from the Quran, without the corruption becoming noticeable. Scholars have discovered some hidden logic structures (codes) in the Quran that prove its authenticity and help in protecting its integrity from corruption.

The Quran (Koran) contains lots of scientific knowledge, from various fields such as astronomy, geology, medicine, embryology, etc., that have only been known recently which were totally unknown and could not have been discovered at the time of prophet Mohammad.

The Quran was revealed in Arabic language and Muslims consider only the Arabic Quran to be the Word of God because translations are authored by ordinary human beings, most of the translations were done in the past 100 years, whereas the Arabic Quran is authored by God. Therefore, those translations are not considered by Muslim as a Word of God or holy scriptures. The 5 daily prayers of Muslims are in Arabic (Prayer consist of reciting verses from the Quran as well as saying specific phrases and sentences). However, Muslims are not required to be able to speak Arabic, other than learning to utter few sentences in Arabic that are part of regular prayers.

There are many translations of the Quran currently available. Most of the translators of the Quran are non-Arabs and their knowledge of Arabic is limited. However, even if they were Arabs, you should not expect the translation to be perfect. The Quran is in ancient Arabic language. Many of the vocabulary in the Quran are not used in Modern Arabic. However, even when compared to ancient Arabic literature and poems, the Quran is far more challenging to comprehend fully. That is why ordinary Arabs today, including well-educated Arabs, who are not experts in Arabic language, only understand the general meaning if they simply read the Quran, without reading additional Quran commentaries and interpretation books written by Islamic scholars.

Arabic language is a rich, complex language. The same word may have different meanings. From the same root, you may create tens of derivatives, each derivative has its own significance. By varying the structure of a sentence, you can change the meaning of the sentence. That may explain why translators of the Quran, particularly non-Arab translators, face a very difficult task. No one knows what is in the mind of God and therefore the full intended meaning of each word of the Quran. So, translators find themselves trying to guess what God may have meant.

Furthermore, the most widely-used English translations of the Quran today were done more than 70 years ago: (a) by Abdullah Yusuf Ali who lived from 1872 to 1953 , and (b) by Marmaduke William Muhammad Pickthall who lived from 1875 to 1936 . The discoveries of the miraculous, scientific information in the Quran primarily started in 1970s. The leading figure in such discoveries was a French doctor, named Maurice Baucaille, who converted to Islam and published in 1976 his landmark book, The Bible, The Quran and Science. That is why these popular translations of the Quran do not present clearly the scientific information, embedded in the verses of the Quran.

Each word in the Quran may have multi-level meaning with multi-dimensional significance and may have been chosen by God for multiple purposes. These unique aspects of the Quran may allow, for example, an ordinary Muslim to understand the meaning correctly of a word or verse, but only at one level of depth, while another Muslim may be able to capture a different meaning or significance at another level of depth. Both could be correct in their understanding.

You may think of every word or verse in the Quran as a marvelous painting or piece of art, done by God, the Master Artist and Creator of the Universe, each person who views it (or reads it) may come to a different conclusion regarding the message or meaning intended by God through that word or verse. A Muslim astronomer, who is also expert in Arabic, may be able to infer information of significance in astronomy when reading a verse that an ordinary Muslim will not notice.

We have to consider that God may have also chosen to articulate his message (or multiple messages) in a single verse (or word) with a specific number of words (or letters) for a good reason. God may have intended to send us a numerical message, such as a date of an event or number of certain significance. The Quran was revealed gradually, few verses at a time. However, the way the verses are arranged in each chapter of the Quran and sequence of the chapters which does not necessarily follow chronological order are not haphazard or by chance or coincidence. To read an introduction to field of Numerical Miracles of the Quran, click here. For additional in-depth numerical analysis of the Quran that lead a Muslim researcher to conclude that Israel is likely to end in 2022, click here.


Source: http://www.discoveringislam.org

ISLAM and the AIM of LIFE

What is your purpose in life? What is the rationale behind our life? Why do we live in this life? These questions frequently intrigue people who try to find accurate answers.


People provide different answers to these questions. Some people believe the purpose of life is to accumulate wealth. But one may wonder: What is the purpose of life after one has collected colossal amounts of money? What then? What will the purpose be once money is gathered? If the purpose of life is to gain money, there will be no purpose after becoming wealthy. And in fact, here lies the problem of some disbelievers or misbelievers at some stage of their life, when collecting money is the target of their life. When they have collected the money they dreamt of, their life loses its purpose. They suffer from the panic of nothingness and they live in tension and restlessness.


Can Wealth Be an Aim?


We often hear of a millionaire committing suicide, sometimes, not the millionaire himself but his wife, son, or daughter. The question that poses itself is: Can wealth bring happiness to one’s life? In most cases the answer is NO. Is the purpose of collecting wealth a standing purpose? As we know, the five-year old child does not look for wealth: a toy for him is equal to a million dollars. The eighteen-year old adolescent does not dream of wealth because he is busy with more important things. The ninety-year old man does not care about money; he is worried more about his health. This proves that wealth cannot be a standing purpose in all the stages of the individual's life.


Wealth can do little to bring happiness to a disbeliever, because he/she is not sure about his fate. A disbeliever does not know the purpose of life. And if he has a purpose, this purpose is doomed to be temporary or self destructive.


What is the use of wealth to a disbeliever if he feels scared of the end and skeptical of everything. A disbeliever may gain a lot of money, but will surely lose himself.


Worshipping Allah as an Aim


On the contrary, faith in Allah gives the believer the purpose of life that he needs. In Islam, the purpose of life is to worship Allah. The term "Worship" covers all acts of obedience to Allah.


The Islamic purpose of life is a standing purpose. The true Muslim sticks to this purpose throughout all the stages of his life, whether he is a child, adolescent, adult, or an old man.


Worshipping Allah makes life purposeful and meaningful, especially within the framework of Islam. According to Islam this worldly life is just a short stage of our life. Then there is the other life. The boundary between the first and second life is the death stage, which is a transitory stage to the second life. The type of life in the second stage a person deserves depends on his deeds in the first life. At the end of the death stage comes the day of judgment. On this day, Allah rewards or punishes people according to their deeds in the first life.


The First Life as an Examination


So, Islam looks at the first life as an examination of man. The death stage is similar to a rest period after the test, i. e. after the first life. The Day of Judgment is similar to the day of announcing the results of the examinees. The second life is the time when each examinee enjoys or suffers from the outcome of his behavior during the test period.


In Islam, the line of life is clear, simple, and logical: the first life, death, the Day of Judgment, and then the second life. With this clear line of life, the Muslim has a clear purpose in life. The Muslim knows he is created by Allah. Muslims know they are going to spend some years in this first life, during which they have to obey God, because God will question them and hold them responsible for their public or private deeds, because Allah knows about all the deeds of all people. The Muslim knows that his deeds in the first life will determine the type of second life they will live in. The Muslim knows that this first life is a very short one, one hundred years, more or less, whereas the second life is an eternal one.


The Eternity of the Second Life


The concept of the eternity of the second life has a tremendous effect on a Muslims during their first life, because Muslims believe that their first life determines the shape of their second life. In addition, this determines the shape of their second life and this determination will be through the Judgment of Allah, the All just and Almighty.


With this belief in the second life and the Day of Judgment, the Muslim's life becomes purposeful and meaningful. Moreover, the Muslim's standing purpose is to go to Paradise in the second life.


In other words, the Muslim's permanent purpose is to obey Allah, to submit to Allah, to carry out His orders, and to keep in continues contact with Him through prayers (five times a day), through fasting (one month a year), through charity (as often as possible), and through pilgrimage (once in one's life).


The Need for a Permanent Purpose


Disbelievers have purposes in their lives such as collecting money and property, indulging in sex, eating, and dancing. But all these purposes are transient and passing ones. All these purposes come and go, go up and down. Money comes and goes. Health comes and goes. Sexual activities cannot continue forever. All these lusts for money, food and sex cannot answer the individual's questions: so what? Then What?


However, Islam saves Muslims from the trouble of asking the question, because Islam makes it clear, from the very beginning, that the permanent purpose of the Muslim in this life is to obey Allah in order to go to Paradise in the second life.


We should know that the only way for our salvation in this life and in the hereafter is to know our Lord who created us, believe in Him, and worship Him alone.


We should also know our Prophet whom Allah had sent to all mankind, believe in Him and follow Him. We should, know the religion of truth which our Lord has commanded us to believe in, and practice it …


Those in search of truth


Who have an open mind and heart,


Islamic Education Foundation


Welcome You.



Source: http://muslimsin.com

Kamis, 24 November 2011

How to Convert to Islam and Become a Muslim

The word “Muslim” means one who submits to the will of God, regardless of their race, nationality or ethnic background. Becoming a Muslim is a simple and easy process that requires no pre-requisites. One may convert alone in privacy, or he/she may do so in the presence of others.

If anyone has a real desire to be a Muslim and has full conviction and strong belief that Islam is the true religion of God, then, all one needs to do is pronounce the “Shahada”, the testimony of faith, without further delay. The “Shahada” is the first and most important of the five pillars of Islam.

With the pronunciation of this testimony, or “Shahada”, with sincere belief and conviction, one enters the fold of Islam.

Upon entering the fold of Islam purely for the Pleasure of God, all of one’s previous sins are forgiven, and one starts a new life of piety and righteousness. The Prophet said to a person who had placed the condition upon the Prophet in accepting Islam that God would forgive his sins:

“Do you not know that accepting Islam destroys all sins which come before it?” (Saheeh Muslim)

When one accepts Islam, they in essence repent from the ways and beliefs of their previous life. One need not be overburdened by sins committed before their acceptance. The person’s record is clean, and it is as if he was just born from his mother’s womb. One should try as much as possible to keep his records clean and strive to do as many good deeds as possible.

The Holy Quran and Hadeeth (prophetic sayings) both stress the importance of following Islam. God states:

“...The only religion in the sight of God is Islam...” (Quran 3:19)

In another verse of the Holy Quran, God states:

“If anyone desires a religion other than Islam, never will it be accepted of him; and in the Hereafter, he will be in the ranks of those who have lost (their selves in the Hellfire).” (Quran 3:85)

In another saying, Muhammad, the Prophet of God, said:

“Whoever testifies that there in none worthy of being worshipped but God, Who has no partner, and that Muhammad is His slave and Prophet, and that Jesus is the Slave of God, His Prophet, and His word[1] which He bestowed in Mary and a spirit created from Him; and that Paradise (Heaven) is true, and that the Hellfire is true, God will eventually admit him into Paradise, according to his deeds.” (Saheeh Al-Bukhari)

The Prophet of God, may the blessing and mercy of God be upon him, also reported:

“Indeed God has forbidden to reside eternally in Hell the person who says: “I testify that none has the right to worship except Allah (God),’ seeking thereby the Face of God.” (Saheeh Al-Bukhari)
The Declaration of the Testimony (Shahada)

To convert to Islam and become a Muslim a person needs to pronounce the below testimony with conviction and understanding its meaning:

I testify “La ilah illa Allah, Muhammad rasoolu Allah.”

The translation of which is:

“I testify that there is no true god (deity) but God (Allah), and that Muhammad is a Messenger (Prophet) of God.”

To hear it click here or click on “Live Help” above for assistance by chat.

When someone pronounces the testimony with conviction, then he/she has become a Muslim. It can be done alone, but it is much better to be done with an adviser through the “Live Help” at top, so we may help you in pronouncing it right and to provide you with important resources for new Muslims.

The first part of the testimony consists of the most important truth that God revealed to mankind: that there is nothing divine or worthy of being worshipped except for Almighty God. God states in the Holy Quran:

“We did not send the Messenger before you without revealing to him: ‘none has the right to be worshipped except I, therefore worship Me.’” (Quran 21:25)

This conveys that all forms of worship, whether it be praying, fasting, invoking, seeking refuge in, and offering an animal as sacrifice, must be directed to God and to God alone. Directing any form of worship to other than God (whether it be an angel, a messenger, Jesus, Muhammad, a saint, an idol, the sun, the moon, a tree) is seen as a contradiction to the fundamental message of Islam, and it is an unforgivable sin unless it is repented from before one dies. All forms of worship must be directed to God only.

Worship means the performance of deeds and sayings that please God, things which He commanded or encouraged to be performed, either by direct textual proof or by analogy. Thus, worship is not restricted to the implementation of the five pillars of Islam, but also includes every aspect of life. Providing food for one’s family, and saying something pleasant to cheer a person up are also considered acts of worship, if such is done with the intention of pleasing God. This means that, to be accepted, all acts of worship must be carried out sincerely for the Sake of God alone.

The second part of the testimony means that Prophet Muhammad is the servant and chosen messenger of God. This implies that one obeys and follows the commands of the Prophet. One must believe in what he has said, practice his teachings and avoid what he has forbidden. One must therefore worship God only according to his teaching alone, for all the teachings of the Prophet were in fact revelations and inspirations conveyed to him by God.

One must try to mold their lives and character and emulate the Prophet, as he was a living example for humans to follow. God says:

“And indeed you are upon a high standard of moral character.” (Quran 68:4)

God also said:

“And in deed you have a good and upright example in the Messenger of God, for those who hope in the meeting of God and the Hereafter, and mentions God much.” (Quran 33:21)

He was sent in order to practically implement the Quran, in his saying, deeds, legislation as well as all other facets of life. Aisha, the wife of the Prophet, when asked about the character of the Prophet, replied:

“His character was that of the Quran.” (As-Suyooti)

To truly adhere to the second part of the Shahada is to follow his example in all walks of life. God says:

“Say (O Muhammad to mankind): ‘If you (really) love God, then follow me.’” (Quran 3:31)

It also means that Muhammad is the Final Prophet and Messenger of God, and that no (true) Prophet can come after him.

“Muhammad is not the father of any man among you but he is the Messenger of God and the last (end) of the Prophets and God is Ever All-Aware of everything.” (Quran 33:40)

All who claim to be prophets or receive revelation after Muhammad are imposters, and to acknowledge them would be tantamount to disbelief.

We welcome you to Islam, congratulate you for your decision, and will try to help you in any way we can.


Source: islamreligion.com

Islam in a Modern State: Democracy and the Concept of Shura

Dr. Fathi Osman

Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding
History and International Affairs
Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service
Georgetown University
Washington, D.C. 20057

The Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding

The Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding: History and International Affairs was established in 1993 by Georgetown University and the Foundation pour l'entente entre Chrétiens et Musulmans, Geneva, to promote dialogue between the two great religions. The Center focuses on the historical, theological, political and cultural encounter of Islam and Christianity, the Muslim world and the West. Located in the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service and Georgetown University, the Center combines teaching, research and public affairs.

Center faculty and visiting faculty offer courses on Islam and the history of Muslim-Christian relations for undergraduate and graduate students at the University. In addition, a broad array of public affairs activities and publications seek to interpret the interaction of the Muslim world and the West for diverse communities: government, academia, the media, religious communities, and the corporate world.

Dr. Fathi Osman

Fathi Osman was a Visiting Research Professor at the Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding in the spring of 1997. Dr. Osman has taught at the University of Southern California, Temple University, Princeton University, Imam Muhammad ibn Saud University, Al-Azhar in Egypt and Oran University in Algeria.

Dr. Osman earned his undergraduate degree in Islamic Byzantine Relations at the University of Cairo, Egypt, and his doctoral degree in Islamic Economic and Financial Institutions at Princeton University in New Jersey. his publications included: Islamic Thought and Human Change, An Introduction to Islamic History, Human Rights Between Western Thought and Islamic Law, On the Political Experience of the Contemporary Islamic Movements, The Muslim World, Issues and Challenges, Jihad: A Legitimate Struggle for Human Rights; Muslim Women in the Family and Society, Shari'a in a Contemporary Society: Islamic Law and Change, and Concepts of the Quran: A Topical Reading of the Divine Revelation.

Islam in a Modern State:

Democracy and the Concept of Shura

Democracy among Modern Ideologies

The term "ideology" has become dominant during the last two centuries, starting in France with the philosopher A.L.C. Destutt de Tracy who used the term to refer to the "science of ideas". As Encyclopedia Britannica explains,

In the loose sense of the word, ideology may mean any kind of action-oriented theory or any attempt to approach politics in the light of a system of ideas. Ideology in the stricter sense stays fairly close to Destutt de Tracy's original conception, and may be identified by five characteristics: (1) it contains an explanatory theory of a more or less comprehensive kind about human experience and the external world; (2) it sets out a program, in generalized and abstract terms, of social and political organization; (3) it conceives the realization of this program as entailing a struggle; (4) it seeks not merely to persuade, but to recruit loyal adherents demanding what is sometimes called commitment; (5) it addresses a wide public, but may tend to confer some special role of leadership on intellectuals. 1

The "-isms" that have dominated the nineteenth and twentieth centuries may suggest that "ideologies are no older than the word itself - that they belong essentially to a period in which secular faith has increasingly replaced traditional religious faith" (emphasis added). 2

Britannica points out certain similarities between any "ideology" and a "religion", since both are concerned with questions of truth and questions of conduct,

but the differences are perhaps more important... A religious theory of reality is constructed in terms of a divine order and is seldom, like that of the ideologist, centered on this world alone. A religion may present a vision of a just society, but it cannot easily have a practical political program. The emphasis of religion is on faith and worship; its appeal is to inwardness and its aim is purification of the human spirit. An ideology speaks to the group, the nation or the class. Some religions acknowledge their debt to revelation, whereas ideology always believes, however mistakenly, that is lives by reason. Both demand commitment. 3

However, with regard to Islam, one may be some reservations about the distinctions between ideologies and religions presented in Britannica's article, since Muslims believe that Islam presents a whole way of life in this world and following it is a condition for the rewards of the eternal life to come. Purification of the spirit cannot be isolated from conducting human relations with others in this world, and both interact in the Islamic perspective of faith and righteousness.

As for "democracy" in particular, it is the ideology that has survived despite a general cooling in the fervor for ideologies as comprehensive intellectual tools for change. Democracy has maintained its common appeal to the modern human mind, at least with regards to its basic principles, in spite of the considerable criticism that it has been facing conceptually and practically, from its own supporters as well as its opponents. Derived from the Greek words "demos" (the people) and "kratia" (rule), used to describe early democratic forms of government developed in the sixth-century B.C.E. Greek city-states, the term has been defined in a condensed way to mean "the government of the people, by the people, for the people". It originally designates "a government where the people share in directing the activities of the state, as distinct from governments controlled by a single class, select group or autocrat", according to the New Columbia Encyclopedia, but

has been expanded to describe a philosophy that insists on the right and the capacity of a people, acting either directly or through representatives, to control their situations for their own purposes. Such a philosophy places a high value of the equality of individuals and would free people as far as possible from restraints not self-imposed. It insists that necessary restraints be imposed by the consent of the majority and that they conform to the principle of equality. 4

Natural Law, Social Contract

Freedom and equality of all citizens or even all human beings represent the cornerstones of democracy. A doctrine of "natural law" that supersedes and prevails over any state law developed the idea of natural rights, such as the rights of self-preservation, which in turn was used to support the rights of citizens and human beings. Another support for natural human rights was provided by the idea of "the social contract" that binds both the ruler and the people by reciprocal obligations, in the view of the British philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) and the Swiss-born philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).

Representation, Elections, and Party Systems

Because direct democracy is difficult or even impossible to practice in any relatively wide and populous country, representation has become an essential principal and practice in democracy. Elections and political parties have provided the mechanism for the representation of the people in directing the main activities of the state, especially the executive and the legislative branches. Universal suffrage and the multi-party system are significant features in the democratic process, whatever disadvantages each may have.

Dilemmas have always emerged for representative body in considering the parallel and sometimes the sharply contradictory interest demands of the: individual versus society as a whole; elite versus the masses; majority versus the minority and vice versa; political democracy, economic development and private enterprise on one hand and social justice, human development and environmental preservation on the other. In addition, and perhaps more importantly, a continuous challenge meets any ideology that is by nature fixed in its fundamentals in the face of unceasing change in any human society, which requires dynamic creativity and continuous reconsideration of priorities and re-designation of strategies. Meanwhile, the state of constant elections often leads to a preference for short-term compromises and appeasing the masses, and allows pressure groups and lobbies to act vigorously - not always for the public interest or the mainstream benefit.

Moreover, while the mass media provide democracy with amazingly efficient and effective means of communication between the political leadership and the masses, these marvelous channels can be easily tempted professionally or financially to be means of public misguidance.

Democracy Stimulates Differences but Organizes Opposition

Democracy represents an ideal of justice, as well as a form of government. It develops a belief that freedom and equality are inherently good and that democratic participation in ruling secures, deepens and enhances human dignity. Democracy starts in the family and at school, and both should function in a way that nurtures democracy in a child's behavior. Democracy is presented in another sense as a comprehensive way of life, not merely a political system.

However, freedom of expression and assembly are essential for the life and flourishing of democracy. No democracy can exist without securing full rights for the opposition. James Madison (1751-1836), the fourth president of the U.S. (1809-1917), once wrote, "Liberty is to faction as air to fire." Freedom that promotes faction is valuable since false consensus or disappearance of differences may mean tyranny or stagnation. A democracy cannot deserve such a name if no differences or opposition exists. Yet, differences and opposition must be handled legitimately, without moral or physical assaults against opponents. Since democracy means freedom and equality, individual and group differences will always emerge, and this is healthy, as long as it is practiced properly.

Political Democracy and Social Justice

Modern democracies believe now, differently from what was established theoretically and practically before, that an interference of the state in the economy (to some degree without sacrificing the essence of democracy) may sometimes be necessary in order to deal with difficult problems like a severe recession, or to secure social justice, "The New Deal" promoted by President F.D. Roosevelt (1933-1945) to handle the U.S. recession in the 1930s is landmark in this respect. Western democracies have advocated and practiced to different degrees the concept of a "welfare state", especially when political parties with various socialistic tendencies rule.

Contradictions of the Democratic West

Democracy has to be universal for all of humanity: the rich and the poor, the developed and the developing. Exporting tobacco to other countries without a health warning; shipping food, medicine, chemicals and other products without expiration dates; ignoring the safety precautions or the inevitable harm of certain industries as long as they are established in other countries; and moving the nuclear waste to the open seas - a common property of all humanity - all such actions are not only undemocratic but are anti-democratic. As emphasized by Thomas L. Pangla, a professor of political science at the University of Toronto, in his book The Ennobling of Democracy: The Challenge of the Postmodern Age5, liberal democracy is forced to re-examine its internal structure and fundamental aims, especially after being deprived of its traditional enemy at the end of the Cold War. In the author's view, a significant negative in the postmodern age has been the "moral relativism" of many mainstream Western intellectuals. Pangla writes,

Philosophers of modernity, from Spinoza to Locke to Kant and even Hegel, spoke not simply of human rights but emphatically of 'natural rights', issued in moral 'laws of nature's God', and accompanied by such foundational concepts as the 'state of nature', 'the social contract', and 'the categorical imperative'. Nothing characterizes the spiritual climate of the West today so much as the persuasive disbelief in these once all-powerful philosophical pillars of modernity. Our philosophical currents are negative, skeptical, disillusioned. The postmodern is not 'what exists after modernity'; it is rather the state of being entangled in modernity, as something from which we cannot escape but in which we can no longer put on final faith… The cultural, moral, religious and even the civic permission of the Enlightenment were fulfilled in a much more ambiguous and controversial fashion than the mathematical, economic, and technological promises. The great attempts by the political philosophers of the Enlightenment to provide systematic, rational and generally acceptable foundations for public and private existence have proved to be inadequate. This is by no means to say that they have been altogether a failure.

He argues that a serious challenge has been posed to postmodernism by the emerging democracies of Eastern Europe which make demands on Western thought that post-modernism has been unable to meet6. Along a similar line, Aslam Munjee has written The Rape of a Noble Ideology: U.S.A. in Perspective 1783-1985. 7

Although all of humanity lives in an era of globalism through the fascinating technology of transportation, communication, and information, and thus are all human beings are living in one village or "riding the same boat", egotistic attitudes and visions dominate international relations - especially the material and cultural relations - between developed and developing countries. Instead of military power, the developed West uses its economic and technological superiority to obtain "secure" markets for its products, and "security" is defined by the West on its own political and ideological terms.

One may be reminded of an earlier challenge to the West before the postmodern age: that of previously colonized countries that became independent and looked to their former colonizers for advice and help in developing and modernizing the political, economic and social systems within their countries.

Democracy in Developing Societies

"In the industrialized countries of the West," A.H. Somjee points out in his book The Democratic Process in a Developing Society, 8

economic development, urbanization and some measure of social equality preceded the formation of democratic institutions. In some of the developing countries, on the other hand, this process has been reversed. There, the strategy of economic development at the expense of political liberation has not found many supporters. For such countries, a slow pace of economic advancement through the democratic process in not the only problem.

However, "although so far very few of these (developing) societies have been able to sustain and strengthen their liberal institutions", the author continues, "their gradual democratization is as likely to take place as their liberal institutions". In his preface, Somjee refers to Robert Dahl's suggestion that the democratic process is essentially concerned with two sets of related activities: exercising influence on leaders, and making governments responsive and accountable. Yet, Somjee underlines something distinctive in a developing society:

Within the situation of a developing country like India, however, the term "democratic process" has to mean more than that. To be able to attain the position referred to by Dahl, first of all the individual must be released from the constraints of the primary groups to which he (/she) is born, so that he (/she) may exercise his (/her) political choice in an uninhibited fashion. Simultaneously, the democratic process has to help him (/her) to grow in understanding and capacity, so that by trial and error and working in concert with his (/her) fellow men (women), he (/she) can learn and use his (/her) new political status to demand effective solutions to the problems which afflict them (emphasis added).

As examples for the challenges that the democratic process faces in India, the author notes: "With the exception of its top leadership, the main interest of the Congress Party as an organization was to line up the votes of the Christian and Muslims rather than involve them in the wider democratic process of India".9 He adds:

The survival of the democratic process in any society depends on its ability to address itself effectively to its basic problems. But this it can do only with the help of party organizations. No matter how conscious or involved the electorate may be, it cannot take the place of party organizations. It can merely observe, evaluate and replace one party by another. While the democratic process may be said to have struck root in India, the state of party organizations, on which its survival depends, is far from satisfactory. 10

However, there is no available framework that secures equal rights and responsibilities for all individuals and groups in contemporary pluralism better than democracy, and there is no other framework that makes possible self-criticism and self-correction within the system itself and while it is functioning.

Islam: A Faith and Worship,

As Well As a Comprehensive Way of Life

Islam is a religion, not a mere political system; it appeals primarily to the inwardness of the human mind and spirit, the promises the whole fulfillment of every individual and absolute justice in the eternal life to come. However, it requires that the individual's spiritual development be represented and reflected in reforming personal behavior and social relations, in order to prove innate change and achieve salvation with its eternal rewards. Islam not only has a vision of a just society, but also presents general principles of a whole way of life for the individual, the family, the society, the state, and the world relations in order to secure balance and justice in the whole human sphere. It offers the basic moral and organization rules for relations between man and woman, between the elderly and the young in the nuclear and extended family, and in the society, between the haves and the have-nots, between the rulers and the ruled, and between Muslims and others within the local society and throughout the world. Like ideologies, Islam does not provide detailed practicalities and programs, since such details are changeable to fit unceasing change in human circumstances in different times and places. Islam allows extensive room for the creativity of the human mind to cope with emerging changes, for the human mind is God's gift to be fully used and developed, it should not be restricted or crippled by that other gift of God, His guiding messages. It is the same One God who created the human being, and who grants him or her spiritual, moral, and intellectual faculties, and to whom He has sent His guiding messages as well, both are made in accordance with the all truth. 11 Thus, no contradiction between both may exist; “And so set your face (and direct yourself) sincerely towards the faith, which is in accordance with the nature upon which God has originated human beings...”12 God’s messages aim to develop the human being in his or her totality: spiritually, morally, intellectually, physically, individually and socially, and to guard him or her against egotism without suppressing or pattemizing human individuality and personal creativity. Divine guidance develops individuals through to their full spiritual potential instead of being deformed by selfish greed in a material civilization—as the American philosopher John Dewey has sharply pointed out.13

Therefore, Islam can be presented to and dealt with by a non-Muslim as an ideology, with some flexibility in using the term since it was coined for human ideas, or as general principles for a comprehensive way of life. Naturally, however, the intellectual conviction cannot provide the same moral depth, width and constancy as a religious commitment, which looks for the acceptance of the Absolute Supreme and the reward of eternity. Freedom and equality for all human beings are, for the believers in God, definite results of the belief in the One who is the only distinctive and supreme “the One to whom all greatness belongs,”14 “there is nothing like unto him,”15 “there is nothing that could be compared with Him.” 16 All human beings are equally God’s creation, and each is free since he or she is only subject to God’s physical and moral laws, and each is equal to any other human being. Caliph ‘Umar (13-23H/634-44 C.E.) tersely addressed the Muslim governor of Egypt whose son beat an Egyptian child, “Since when did you impose slavery on human beings while their mothers bore them free!” 17

However, the religious dimension in the Islamic ideology or plan, of individual and social, local and global reform, does not mean the establishment of a theocracy. There is no clergy in Islam; any intelligent human being who knows the language and the style can understand and interpret God’s message and no supernatural or metaphysical power can be required or claimed for such a work.

God’s message has ‘been preserved and made known publicly through centuries; and no human being can add to it or detract from it. The ideology of Islam, if we may say so, is not totalitarian. It does not dictate details that dominate every moment or make an imperative for any human thought and move, nor does it claim to provide a definitive prescription in advance for every specific problem that may emerge at any time in the future. Islam presents the essential guidance that allows the creativity of the human mind to conceive, infer from, and build upon it. The ruling authorities cannot monopolize providing the interpretation of the divine guidance or offer new solutions for emerging problems from above without involving the people, and every sane adult has the right to participate in such a process.

Human Dignity

Human freedom and equality are fundamental in any democracy. Similarly, Islam considers “human dignity” fundamental to its guidance for the right way of life. The Quran reads: “We have indeed conferred dignity on the children of Adam, and carried them on land and sea, and provided for them sustenance out of the good things of life, and favored them far above most of Our creation” (emphasis added). 18 All the children of Adam, whatever their race, ethnicity, gender, age, social status and beliefs may be, have been granted dignity by their Creator without any distinction, and this human dignity must be secured and maintained by His guidance and laws through the Muslim teachers and authorities, and should never be subjected to violation or declination. Human dignity is comprehensive; it encompasses all human dimensions: spiritual, moral, intellectual and physical. Sustenance from the good things of life must be secured for every human being through fair conditions of work and decent social welfare for those who cannot work temporarily or permanently. Freedom to move from one place to another is an essential feature of human dignity that fulfills the universality of the human creature with his or her unique spiritual, moral, and intellectual potential. Any restrictions in this respect within the country or throughout the world must be considered against human dignity.

Human dignity comprises the fulfillment of obligations as well as the security of rights. Thus, the Quran uses the word “dignity” to underscore the correspondent human rights and obligations, which should be together carried out to secure the human dignity. Thus, a selfish view of freedom or human rights (which was noticed, for example, in French society after the 1789 revolution and in some Eastern European societies after the collapse of communism) can be avoided.

Early jurists gathered out from the various rules of Islamic Law (shari’a) held that its goal is securing and developing the human being in these five basic areas: life, family and children, mind, freedom of faith, and rights of ownership whether private or public. Human dignity is supported in Islam by educational and organizational measures, and is not presented as empty words, mere rhetoric or personal piety.

Shura in the Islamic Way of Life

Islam teaches that God alone is the One who is All-knowing, All-powerful and must be obeyed unconditionally according to a genuine conviction and belief. 19 Human beings have relative knowledge and no absolute power. They are all equal and enjoy dignity granted to them by God since their creation, and each is accountable in this life and in the life to come for his or her deeds. Every matter, even the faith itself, should rely on one’s conviction about what is right and what is wrong without any coercion or intimidation. As the Quran says, “No coercion is [allowed] in matters of faith.” 20 Based on these beliefs, any human being cannot decide arbitrarily and independently a matter that concerns others and not himself or herself alone, nor claim if he or she does so, an immunity from accountability. The Quran makes “shura” or “participation with others in making a decision that concerns them,” subsequent to and a consequence of the faith in God. It represents the positive response to His message and comes next to making prayers to Him, “and those, who respond to [the call of] their Lord, and keep up the prayers, and whose rule in a matter [of common concern] comes out of consultation among themselves...” (emphasis added). 21 The initiative of involving others in making a decision of common interest has to come from those who are responsible for leadership and making such decisions. However, those concerned people take the initiative to offer their nasiha (advice) to the leadership in a suitable way when they find this necessary, since giving advice is an obligation of every individual towards leaders and the public as well “a’imat al-Muslimin wa ‘ammatihim,” according to a tradition of the Prophet reported by Muslims. Enjoining the doing of what is right and good and forbidding the doing of what is wrong and evil is the responsibility of the state authorities as well as the people and any group of them. 22

Shura is not limited to the political field; it has to be developed starting with the family base to be a general way of life in all areas. Spouses, even in the case of divorce, have to conduct family matters “by mutual consent and counsel” (emphasis added). 23 Both requirements have to be fulfilled together without split, since consent must be based on mutual consultation and not taken for granted, and consultation should lead to mutual consent and not be exercised as a superficial formality. The child has to be educated to express himself or herself freely but properly about what ought to be done or avoided. 24 The family and the school have essential roles in developing shura as a way of life.

Shura means a serious and effective participation in making a decision, not merely a ceremonial procedure. The Quran addresses the Prophet who received divine revelation to rely on shura in making decisions concerning common matters for which no specific revelation had come: “and take counsel with them in all matters of common concern; then, when you have made a decision (accordingly), place your trust in God.” 25 If the prophet is addressed to involve the believers in decision-making regarding a common matter for which no specific revelation exists, all the believers a fortiori must follow this teaching. The distinguished Andalusian Quranic commentator Ibn ‘Atiyya (d. 546H/1151 C.E.) stated his commentary on this verse: “Shura is one of the basics of Islamic law (shari’a), and a mandatory rule; and any [who is entrusted with a public authority] who does not take the counsel of those who have knowledge and are conscious of God, should be dismissed from his [or her public] position, and there is no argument about that.” 26

The Prophet consulted his Companions when he confronted his enemies from Quraysh who challenged him and camped near Medina. In accordance with their opinions, he decided to meet his enemies in the battle of Badr in the year 1 H./622 C. E. Later, the Prophet also consulted his Companions about whether to go out of Medina to meet the attacking army or to stay in and defend the city when they attacked; he followed the majority opinion and met them in the battle of Uhud in 3H./624 C.E. In the attack of a tribal coalition against Medina in the year 5H./626 C.E., when the Prophet’s suggestion to give an attacking tribe some of its fruits to persuade their withdrawal was not approved by some of his Companions, he went along with them. Even in his private life, when his wife ‘A’isha faced a false accusation shortly afterwards, he asked his Companions for their opinions. Later on, in the year 23 H./644 C.E., as soon as Caliph ‘Umar was stabbed, he appointed a committee to discuss, among themselves and with the people, who would succeed him; and their decision had to be made by the majority.

It is obvious from the previously-mentioned verse [Quran 3:159], that any decision made should be based on the results of shura. It is evident in the historical events that the decisions taken were based on the opinions of the majority. Although the minority or even a single person may be right and the majority may be wrong, reliance on majority opinion is the only reasonable and acceptable procedure among human beings, for the risk of error in such a case is far less than in an individual or minority opinion. Freedom of expression and freedom of assembly are essential to determine the right decision among different views, and opposition is naturally indispensable for the life and efficiency of shura.

Besides, the courts, especially a supreme or constitutional court, can always check the constitutionality and legality of any decision. In case of any violation of the general principles of the Islamic Law (shari’a), any decision made by any authority can be overturned by courts.
Shura in the Political Life

Everyone has the right and obligation to participate in deciding who will be their leaders and representatives by shura, and the elected public bodies must reach their decisions by shura. The Quran states that a majority of human beings may not always be on the right track (see, for example, 2:243, 6:116, 7:187, 11:17. 17:89, and 37:71), but it never teaches that a majority of reasonable and sincere people can be less reliable and more erring than an individual or a minority among them; this is sharply pointed out by Muhammad Abduh and Muhammad Rashid Rida in their prominent commentary on the Quran. 27 The majority can make mistakes, but making mistakes is human and humans are only required to make serious efforts to determine what is right and to avoid mistakes, making use of accumulated human knowledge and experience about the discussed matter. Such requirements can be met far better in a majority decision. As previously mentioned, many precedents can be found in the life of the Prophet and the early Caliphs about decisions made according to the majority even if they differed from the leader’s view. Islam teaches that an individual must adhere to the society or community (al-jama’d), and the majority can only be identified in such a case. A Prophet’s tradition urges one to follow the most overwhelming majority (al-sawad al-a’zam) in case of a serious split (reported by Ibn Hanbal and Ibn Majah).

The primary area for shura is in choosing the head of the state. In our times, the state leader may be directly chosen by the people or by their elected representatives, and may be the head of the executive branch, or just a symbol for the state while the actual authority is given to the prime minister. In the last case, the prime minister is the leader of the political party whose candidates have won the majority of the seats of the representative body, which may also be called the “parliament.” The Quran states: “O you have attained to faith! Obey God, and obey the Conveyor of the Message [of God] and those from among you who have been entrusted with authority by you; and if you are at variance over any matter, refer it to God and the Conveyor of the Message [of God] if you believe in God and the Last day; this is advantageous [for your human relations] and most appropriate for reaching what is right” (emphasis added). 28 The verse indicates that those who are in authority should be those “from among you who are entrusted with authority by you” (ulu al-amr minkum). This may remind us of the characterization of democracy as establishing “the government of the people by the people for the people.”

While a democratic decision has to comply with “imagined” natural human rights or a social contact as a safeguard against any possible majority injustice, Muslims and those who are entrusted with authority “from among them, by them” are bound by the goals and general principles of shari’a that secure human dignity, and guard and develop for all human beings: their life, families and children, minds, freedom of faith and ownership of private or public property.

According to the Islamic historical precedents, there is a real binding contract—not a fictitious one—between the ruler and the ruled. The mutual pledge, which was called “bay’a,” holds the ruler responsible for assuring the supremacy of God’s law (shari’a) and justice, securing human dignity, serving the public interest, and fulfilling the entire duties of the position, while it holds the people responsible for supporting the ruler, obeying his decisions that comply with God’s law, and fulfilling their obligations. 29

The preceding verse implies that those who are entrusted with authority by the people form “organizational bodies” are not considered mere individuals, since they are always referred to in the Quran in the plural [see 4:59, 83].

Moreover, differences may naturally emerge within these bodies that which are entrusted with authority, or between them and the people or groups of them. The parties at variance are referred to the guidance of God and the Conveyor of His message, which may be presented and decided in the most appropriate way, whenever this becomes necessary, by a supreme court.

The head of the state can he elected directly by the- people or by the parliamentary representatives of the people, or can be nominated by these representatives and introduced to the public vote. Any procedure can be followed according to its own merits and to the given circumstances, and Islam accepts that which is in the interest of the people. 30 Early Caliphs were chosen primarily from a narrow circle and vested by bay’a, then the chosen Caliphs would go to the public to get their acceptance through the public bay’a. As previously indicated, bay’a is a mutual pledge: from the ruler to follow the Islamic Law and satisfy the public, and from the people to support the ruler and advise him.

Other Areas for Shura

* Shura has a role in the election of the people’s representatives in the parliamentary body—or bodies—and its practice of legislation, guarding the public interest through checking the executive exercise of power, and pursuing the people’s concerns. When the principle of “one person, one vote” fails to secure a fair representation of any group: ethnic, religious or social (i.e., women), justice (the main goal of shari’a) has to be secured by appropriate means in the given circumstances, such as assigning for each of such groups a certain number of seats in proportion to their size, which would be exclusively contested in certain constituencies or in the country as a whole by those who are related to the group, as some democratic ideas or practices have indicated. In addition, a limited number of seats, which should represent a minority in the whole parliament, may be occupied by elected representatives of professional or social organizations. Continuous democratic experiences always contribute ways for reaching the best possible representation of the people and their diverse structure and interests.

*Discussions, hearings, and reaching decisions by the representative body and its committees, within themselves, with the executive bodies or with other organizations or individuals in relation to any public concern, represent a vital area for the practice of shura.

*A significant practice of shura may occur if public referendum is found appropriate in certain matters of special importance, which may be decided by the legislature or by a required number of voters through an indicated procedure.

*In the executive branch and its departments, shura naturally has its place in the discussions and decisions.

*Shura has also to be practiced in the elections of leaders and boards in workers’, professionals’ and students’ unions, and in the discussions and decisions of these elected bodies, and in any wider conference they may arrange.

*Technical and professional shura ought to be conducted in schools, hospitals, factories, companies or any other business.

*In the courts, shura is followed when there is more than one judge ruling over the case, or when the jury system is applied.

Voting

The democratic mechanism in elections and decision-making is voting, and its known and accepted form is “one person, one vote.” This procedure was suggested by Caliph ‘Umar for the committee

that he appointed to determine who would succeed him as Caliph after being stabbed. It was further evident from many historical precedents—of which some have been previously mentioned—that the Prophet and the early Caliphs followed the visible majority in making their decisions. The above-mentioned tradition of the Prophet teaches that one has to follow the overwhelming majority (al-sawad al-a’ zam) when there is a serious spilt.

To those who argue that “one person, one vote” makes the judgment of the most knowledgeable person equal to that of the most ignorant one, one may reply by saying that, in relation to the common interest of the people, any adult with common sense and civic abilities and experience can make a judgment. Campaigns that support different candidates’ views and the mass media provide valuable information for a serious voter. Any discrimination in the votes, on whatever grounds, may be arbitrary. Judgment about a public matter of an uneducated but experienced person may be more sound than that of an inexperienced university graduate.

Women are equal to men in public responsibilities as the Quran explicitly states: “And the believers, both men and women, are in charge of [and responsible for] one another: they all enjoin the doing of what is right and good and forbid the doing of what is wrong and evil... ”31 Women’s views regarding who should succeed Caliph ‘Umar were pursued, even those of women who were staying in their homes. 32

The notable commentator on the Quran Ibn Jarir al-Tabari [d. 310H./922 C.E] and the prominent jurist Ibn Hazm [d. 450CH./668 C.E.] stated that a woman can occupy the distinguished position of a judge, if she is qualified for it.” 33 The Quranic verse about making a male witness equal to two female witnesses in a credit contract indicates that this is meant when a woman might not be familiar with such transactions and their legal requirements, “so that if one of them should make a mistake the other could remind her” [2:82]. It is obvious from the Quranic text, the historical social context, and the jurisprudential principle that: “a legal rule follows its reason: if the reason continues to exist, the rule holds, and if the reason ceases to exist the rule is not applied”—all this makes it obvious that the verse does not address educated or business-experienced women, nor address common human interests which do not require specialization.

The distinguished jurist Ibn al-Qayyim [d. 751H./1350 C.E.] indicated in his book, al-Turuq al-Hukmiyya (Ways of Ruling), as well as other jurists, that this rule does not apply to the testimony of a woman in other areas that she may know well.34 If some jurists stated that a woman could be a judge, then the verse about her testimony cannot be understood as a general rule for the whole gender in all times and places.

Candidacy

Elections require several candidates from whom to chose for a position. Caliph “Umar nominated six distinguished persons from which one might be chosen as a candidate for the caliphate to succeed him. Some argue against such a procedure from an Islamic point of view, arguing that the Prophet said he “would not appoint in a public position one who had asked for it.” 35 According to scholars in this field and jurists, this is interpreted as a warning against asking for a public position merely for a personal benefit without considering its responsibilities and the required capabilities for fulfilling them. One who is capable for a public position, fully aware of its responsibilities, and thinks that he or she can fulfill them and commits himself or herself to do so, can ask for the position and mention his or her qualifications for it, as the Prophets Yusuf [Joseph] and Sulayman [Solomon] did. Yusuf said to the King of Egypt: “Set me in charge of the store-houses of the land, I am a knowing and honest guardian” [12:55], and Sulayman prayed: “O my Lord! Forgive me and grant me a kingdom such as may not befall anyone after me” [38:35]. It goes without saying that presenting the candidate’s merits and capability for the position, and criticizing others’ in capabilities should follow the legal and ethical principles of Islam. The requirements for a candidate, or what may bar a person from a candidacy can be decided in the light of Islamic legal and moral teachings, and according to social circumstances.

In Islam, women may be members of the parliament, ministers, judges, and-military and police officers, according to their merits and credentials, since they enjoy equal rights and responsibilities to men in joining the doing of what is right and good and forbidding what is wrong and evil. 36 Non-Muslims represent an inseparable part of the society and the state and have the right and duty to occupy positions in the executive, legislative and judicial branches and in the military and police as per their merits and credentials, according to the Prophet’s constitutional document in Medina and several historical precedents. A modern state is ruled by bodies, not by individuals, and non-Muslims would represent in any body their size and weight in the society. The prominent Shafi’i jurist al-Mawardi (d. 456H/1068 C.E.) stated that a Caliph can have a non-Muslim executive minister.37 Non-Muslims were known as ministers and top officials in Islamic states such as Egypt and Muslim Spain. As for a non-Muslim judge, he or she has to apply the state code of laws according to whatever his or her beliefs may be. However, the areas that are related or close to the faith—such as family matters and waqf (a property of which the revenues are permanently allotted to charity or certain beneficiaries) can be assigned to a judge of the litigant’s faith.

Multi-Party System, the Opposition

Political parties are essential for democracy, as they help people form their views and choices about persons or policies. Besides, the individual finds himself or herself helpless to oppose governmental authority, especially in a modem state with its enormous power provided by advanced technology in suppressing opposition and in influencing public opinion. The multi-party system has proved to be the most—if not the only—democratic formula in this respect. The one-party system has never allowed any real or effective opposition within itself, and such an opposition can never grow outside from it individuals who have no vehicle to contact the masses, and no power as individuals to challenge the government with all its authorities and oppressive measures.

Islam secures the right of assembly, and the Quran urges that groups may be formed to enjoin the doing of what is right and good and forbid what is wrong and evil, which is the essence of politics: “And let there be from among you a community (umma) that calls to good and enjoins the doing of what is right and forbids the doing of what is wrong” [3:104]. The word umma used in the verse may not always mean the whole community but just a group of people,38 especially when the word is connected with the preposition “from,” as in the above mentioned verses: “from among you...(minkum).” This need not hurt the fundamental unity of the people, since political differences are human and inevitable, and thus should not affect the public unity if they are properly handled in objective and ethical ways. As politics represent an area of human thinking and judgment and discretion (ijtihad), the Quran assumes that Muslims may face differences and even disputes,39 and they have to settle them according to the guidance of the Quran and the Sunna. Different legitimate approaches towards the understanding and interpretation of the divine texts and implementing them may naturally arise. Early Muslims had their conceptual differences from time to time, and they argued about the state leadership after the Prophet’s death. Their political differences were represented in certain groups, which freely and openly expressed their diverse views on that occasion in a public meeting at al-Saqifa. Later, Muslims had several theological groups with different political concepts, as they had their different jurisprudent! al schools, and such differences should not by any means hurt the public unity, when they are objectively and ethically tackled.

Accordingly, Muslims can form several Islamic political parties: all of them are committed to Islam, but each with its own concepts or methods of political activity, or with different programs of reform when they rule. Although establishing parties on ethnic grounds or for personal or family considerations ought not to be encouraged from the Islamic point of view—especially among Muslims—this may be acceptable in given circumstances.

Non-Muslims and secularists can have their political parties to present their views, and defend their interests and guard the human rights and dignity of all the children of Adam as the Quran teaches. Women can join or form the party they like. Political fronts and alliances may involve Islamic parties and others whenever this may be beneficial for the Muslims and the entire people. As well, coalitions can gather various parties, including Islamic ones, to form a government. Such a diversity in political thinking, concerns, and activities within the people’s unity represents a fundamental organizational tool for human pluralism, in order to secure and defend the dignity of all children of Adam.

Opposition is indispensable in a democratic system, and should not raise doubts to the Muslim mind. It is needed to scrutinize the government’s activities, and to be ready to replace it if it loses the confidence of the people. Opposition does not oppose for the sake of opposition; it should support the public unity during national crisis.

However, opposition may not be efficient or effective when the political parties become so many that forming a coalition to govern or a weighty opposition would be problematic. This is a challenge for the multi-party system, which some contemporary democracies are facing and suffering from. It may be overcome through political prudence and moral responsibility rather than by any legal restriction that may be arbitrarily decided or executed.

Legislation; Separation of Powers

Some Muslims may argue that, since God is the Lawgiver, there should not be a legislative body in an Islamic state. In fact, the legislature specifies and puts in detail the required laws, while the Quran and Sunna present general principles and certain rules. Even in the case of such particular rules in the Quran or the Sunna, different interpretations and jurisprudential views might arise about a certain text on the grounds of its language and its relation to other relevant texts. It is essential that a certain interpretation or jurisprudential view should be adopted by the state as a law, and this has to be decided by the legislature, so that the courts may not be left to different rules that may be applied in the same case according to the views and discretion of different judges—a complaint the well known writer Ibn al-Muqaffa’ [d. 142H./759 C.E.] made in his time.40

Besides, there is extensive room for what is allowed by shari’a “al-mubah,” and such an enormous area of allowed matters ought to be organized in a certain way, making any of them mandatory, forbidden, or optional according to the changing circumstances in different times and places. Public interest has its consideration in introducing new laws, which were not specified in the Quran and Sunna, but which are needed in a certain time or place, and which do, not contradict any other specific rule in the divine sources, but can be supported by the general goals and principles of shari’a. Many laws are required in a modem state in various areas such as traffic, irrigation, construction, roads, transportation, industry, business, currency, importing and exporting, public health,

education, and so on, and they must only be provided according to the consideration of public interest or in the light of the general goals and principles of shari’a, as there are no specific texts in the Quran and Sunna that directly deal with every emerging need in every time and place.

The Prophet himself expected that some cases, which may not have a particular corresponding rule in the Quran and Sunna, would face a judge who has to use his own discretion and judgment (ijtihad), which is naturally assisted by the essence of shari’a and guided by its general goals and principles. Such a juristic or judicial discretion, ijtihad, may have to be generalized and codified as a state law, and not left to personal differences of the jurists or judges. Changing circumstances influence the human under-standing of the legal text, and develop new legitimate needs for legislation. Considering the goals and general principles of the Islamic law in responding to changing social needs has been called in the Islamic law: “the conduct of the state policies according to shari’a (al-siyasa al-shari’iyya).” The distinguished jurist Ibn al-Qayyim wrote:

A debate took place between (the jurist) Ibn Aqil and another jurist. Ibn Aqil said, ‘Applying (discretionary) policies is prudence, and is needed and practiced by any leader (imam).’ Another (jurist) said, ‘No policy (siyasa) should be applied except what abides by shari’a. Ibn Aqil said, siyasa (which can be described as related to shari’a) represent actions that make people nearer to what is good and further from what is evil, even if such policies were not practiced by the Prophet or included in God’s revelation.’

Ibn al-Qayyim underlined the lack of true knowledge of shari’a and how it copes with the existing realities, and made this fascinating statement:

God only sent the conveyors of His message and sent down His revealed books so that people deal with one another with justice. Wherever a sign of truth appears, and an evidence of justice rises—by any way, there is God’s law and command. God has only indicated through the ways that he gave as laws [by revelation] that His purpose is to establish justice and to secure it in people’s behavior: and thus any way that makes the truth clear and justice recognized should be followed in ruling... We do not see that a just policy may differ from the comprehensive shari’a, but it is merely a part of shari’a, and calling it ‘policy, siyasa’ is merely a term, since it is just inseparable from shari’a. 41

The legislature, then, is necessary and legitimate in a modern Islamic state. It also watches the practices of the executive body, enquires about any failure and introduces any necessary legislation for reform. The principle of “checks and balances” would be helpful in organizing the state bodies and their powers, and guarding the public interest. The separation of the legislative and the executive in their functions, should allow channels of cooperation and should not create a climate of confrontation. The moral and spiritual dimension in the politics of an Islamic state may help organizationally and psychologically to develop the essential co-operation between the two branches. As for the judiciary, it should be independent and protected against any interference or pressure.

Contemporary mass communications provide a valuable vehicle for public information, education and expression. Talk shows, panel discussions, movies, series, songs and other entertainment programs also have their impact on the public attitudes in the various areas of life. I limit myself here to the political side.

Any established means of mass communication must be secured for all. This right may be organized, but never restricted. Freedom of searching for information from different sources including the governmental authorities should also be secured. Legal and ethical safeguards ought not to hinder creativity. The media can help the readers and the audience become more aware of the political issues, especially during election campaigns, and this would make them more capable of a right decision. Any new legislation or any public measure may be more successful in achieving its objective if it is preceded, combined and followed by information and education of the people through the media. According to the Quran, God’s guidance has to be clarified to a person before being responsible for a deliberate deviation from it [e.g., 4:115; 47:25, 33]. Those who are entrusted with authority

by the people have to respond to people’s questions about their practices, while the people have the responsibility to look for the information from the proper sources and avoid rumor traps by using their common sense and moral values [Quran 4:83; 49:6-8]. If any of the mass media is run by the government in a way or another, political parties and contestants for public offices should have equal opportunities to address the people.

However, rights go hand-in-hand with responsibilities. Modern technology has endowed the media, both within the country and universally, with a formidable power that ought to have ethical and legal safeguards. A universal document and supervision may be needed. Heavy pressures on the private media come from wealthy and influential contributors and advertisers. It is a real challenge for the modern world to benefit from this huge technical and psychological power and avoid its excessiveness and abuse. A combination of morality and creativity is essential in such a vital and sensitive area.
Conclusion

It may be obvious from this presentation that the modern democratic process can be a practical mechanism for securing human rights and dignity for all the children of Adam, implementing the concept of shura and achieving the goals and principles of shari’a in a modern Islamic state, with probably limited constitutional clarifications. The undesirable implication of democracy that “it puts the people’s will above God’s will” is merely theoretical, since democracy works within the dominant socio-cultural background, and Muslims will not accept a decision against their beliefs, as long as they are committed to those beliefs. Catholicism has been maintained in democratic Ireland, and monarchy has been maintained in democratic Britain, where the Queen is the head of the state and the church. Democracy acknowledges that natural human rights supersede any legislation, and in a parallel way, Muslims can always stress the supremacy of God’s guidance ideologically, legally and practically. If one may imagine that the majority of Muslims may turn against the political conduct of an Islamic state, this may be limited to certain practices or governmental terms, not to the Islamic state in principle, and the mechanism of a multi-party system can allow another Islamic party to offer a better experience. If, hypothetically, the majority do not want an Islamic state, how can it be imposed on or defended against its will by a non-democratic government? Setting democracy in opposition to Islam is unfair for both. However, let us deal with a concrete, political democratic process and not talk about theories and hypotheses.

One should never assume in any way that Muslims who criticize an Islamic leader, party, government, or even state have become non-Muslims or against Islam! Islam is a faith, not a mere political system, and it has won supporters and followers by exhortation and conviction through individual and social behavior and through its civilization. The message of Islam is always to convince not to impose [e.g., Quran 2:256, 10:99, 11:28, 16:125].

As Muslims should not develop hypothetical and unrealistic fears about a democratic process to implement shura in a contemporary Islamic state, non-Muslims should not have unsubstantial fears about Islam, since it is an ideological and moral safeguard for justice and equal human rights because the Islamic faith deepens the Muslims’ commitment to the human dignity for all the children of Adam. No human rights secured by democracy would be hurt by Islam or Muslims, but would be more observed as a matter of faith.

What about violent militancy or militant violence that we hear about among some Muslims? I see that a blocking of democratic channels of expression and assembly leads in many cases to explosion. In a democracy, there is no place for violence, and Islamic activism can always present itself through common sense and moral behavior. Violence is used only by those who are initially unable to offer words or deeds, or by those who are suppressed by restrictions and pressures and thus it is impossible for them to do so. Muslims in remote and isolated areas in Africa and Asia have proved through centuries that they can peacefully cohabitate with others, and can peacefully present their message through their words and deeds.


Source: cmje.org